• depression diplomacy, sense of crisis, fear of revolution and radicalism, rising Anglophobia, influence of special interests, powerful Congressmen
• James G. Blaine 1881, "spirited diplomacy" of 1889-92, Samoan condominium of 1889

A. Grover Cleveland

• Democratic president 1893-97
• sought lower tariff, gold standard, civil service, honesty, morality
• against special interests - navy, sugar, banana growers
• opposed by silverites, bosses, socialists, businessmen
• 1893 repeal of Sherman Silver Purchase Act
• Depression deepened after 1893 - Coxey's Army, Eugene Debs and Pullman strike 1894
• need for trade expansion to prevent unemployment, labor unrest
• Republican party gained seats in 1894 elections

B. Walter Gresham

• Secretary of State March 1893-May 1895
• U.S. District Judge in 1877 railroad strikes
• feared Fred. Sorge's Socialist-Labor Party
• Postmaster-General for Republican Chet Arthur 1883
• Treasury Secretary 1884
• friends with anti-imperialists - Carl Schurz

C. Foreign Policy Crises

1. Hawaii revolution 1893

• Queen Liliuokalani became monarch 1891, sought to replace 1887 "Bayonet Constitution" imposed on her brother Kalakaua by the Reform Cabinet of foreigners led by Lorrin Thurston and William Green
• John Stevens and USS Boston support 1893 revolt
• Gresham opposed conspiracy of Claus Spreckels (father of John D. Spreckels), Sanford Dole (leader of Hawaiian League of Honolulu businessmen)
• advised no annexation, no marines, supported James "Paramount" Blount
• 1894 tariff restored sugar bounty for Hawaii growers
• recognition of Republic of Hawaii, but no annexation until July 7, 1898
• James Dole, cousin of Sanford, created the Hawaiian Fruit and Plant Co. in 1900 to grow pineapples in Wahiawa
• Hawaii Independent & Sovereign web page

2. Brazilian naval revolution 1893

• unpopular reciprocity treaty 1891 reduced Europe trade
• Adm. Mello leads coup against pro-U.S. Peixoto govt.
• Rio harbor & customs closed; Brit. helps rebels
• minister Thompson & SOC seek help for Peixoto
• but Gresham orders neutrality if U.S. ships access
• Brit. aid to rebels grows, ships of Adm. da Gama
• Gresham sends Adm. Benham, 3 cruisers Jan. 1894
• USS Detroit fires at da Gama Jan. 29, breaks blockade
• Gresham reluctant to use Navy, but pro-trade

3. Mosquito Indian reservation 1894

• under control of Brit. since 1860
• United Fruit banana plantations at Bluefield
• Nicaragua's Zelaya sent troops to seize reservation
• Gresham asks Brit to pull out, not intervene
• sends 2 cruisers to Mosquito coast against Zelaya
• marines landed to help Indians against Zelaya
• by Dec., new government for Indians included Americans
• Gresham allowed Nicaragua to claim control, but protected U.S. interests, excluded Brit.

4. Corinto affair 1895

• Brit land troops to collect indemnity
• Gresham did nothing because Brit occupation was temporary, no U.S. interests in danger
• Republicans attacked Cleveland for pro-Brit. policy
• Lodge: "peacefully if we can, forcibly if we must.'
• growing fear of anarchy in South America like Africa

5. Venezuela boundary dispute 1895

• Brit sought Schomburgk line since 1840
• Venezuela made gold concessions to U.S. 1881
• Brit extend claims to Uruan River 1886
• Brit seek Pt. Barima and access to Orinoco River
• Venezuela lobbies for U.S. help - pamphlet on British Aggressions in Venezuela, or the Monroe Doctrine on Trial (Oct. 1894)
• Venezuela seizes 2 Brit. officers at Uruan Jan. 2
• Congress passes Livingston Resolution Feb. 20
  • that arbitration "be earnestly recommended"

Gresham dies May 28 - replaced by Richard Olney